Cooling systems and hybrid A/C systems using an electromagnetic radiation-absorbing complex

ABSTRACT

A method for powering a cooling unit. The method including applying electromagnetic (EM) radiation to a complex, where the complex absorbs the EM radiation to generate heat, transforming, using the heat generated by the complex, a fluid to vapor, and sending the vapor from the vessel to a turbine coupled to a generator by a shaft, where the vapor causes the turbine to rotate, which turns the shaft and causes the generator to generate the electric power, wherein the electric powers supplements the power needed to power the cooling unit.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims priority under 35 U.S.C. §119(e) to U.S.Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 61/423,438, which isincorporated by reference in its entirety.

STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT

The invention was made with government support under Grant NumberDE-AC52-06NA25396 awarded by the Department of Energy. The governmenthas certain rights in the invention.

BACKGROUND

The generation of electricity generally involves harnessing energy andusing that energy to operate a generator. At times, the energy used tooperate the generator is created using a combustion process. Forexample, natural gas, coal, fuel oil, certain types of biomass, or someother suitable fuel may be combusted to generate heat. The combustion ofthe fuel may occur in a boiler, where the resulting heat is combinedwith fluid (commonly water) to generate vapor (commonly steam). Once thevapor reaches a certain temperature, the vapor may be channeled througha turbine coupled to the generator. Air conditioners and cooling systemsrun on electricity and are known to strain the electricity supply duringpeak hours.

SUMMARY

In general, in one aspect, the invention relates to a method forpowering a cooling unit, the method comprising applying electromagnetic(EM) radiation to a complex, wherein the complex absorbs the EMradiation to generate heat, wherein the complex is at least one selectedfrom a group consisting of copper nanoparticles, copper oxidenanoparticles, nanoshells, nanorods, carbon nanostructures, encapsulatednanoshells, encapsulated nanoparticles, and branched nanostructures,transforming, using the heat generated by the complex, a fluid to vapor,and sending the vapor from the vessel to a turbine coupled to agenerator by a shaft, wherein the vapor causes the turbine to rotate,which turns the shaft and causes the generator to generate the electricpower, wherein the electric powers supplements the power needed to powerthe cooling unit.

In general, in one aspect, the invention relates to a system, the systemcomprising a pump configured to extract fluid from a fluid source, aturbine coupled to a generator by a shaft, and a vessel comprising acomplex, wherein the vessel is configured to receive the fluid fed bythe pump, concentrate electromagnetic (EM) radiation received from an EMradiation source, apply the EM radiation to the complex, wherein thecomplex absorbs the EM radiation to generate heat, transform, using theheat generated by the complex, the fluid to vapor, and send the vapor tothe turbine, wherein the vapor rotates the turbine and, using the shaft,causes the generator to generate the electric power, wherein theelectric power supplements the power needed to power the cooling unit,the cooling unit configured to cool a structure, wherein the coolingunit obtains power from the turbine and from one selected from a groupconsisting of a direct current (DC) power source and an alternatingcurrent (AC) power source.

Other aspects of the invention will be apparent from the followingdescription and the appended claims.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 shows a schematic of a complex in accordance with one or moreembodiments of the invention.

FIG. 2 shows a flow chart in accordance with one or more embodiments ofthe invention.

FIG. 3 shows a chart of the absorbance in accordance with one or moreembodiments of the invention.

FIGS. 4A-4B show charts of an energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy (EDS)measurement in accordance with one or more embodiments of the invention.

FIG. 5 shows a chart of the absorbance in accordance with one or moreembodiments of the invention.

FIG. 6 shows a chart of an EDS measurement in accordance with one ormore embodiments of the invention.

FIG. 7 shows a chart of the absorbance in accordance with one or moreembodiments of the invention.

FIG. 8 shows a flow chart in accordance with one or more embodiments ofthe invention.

FIG. 9 shows a chart of the absorbance in accordance with one or moreembodiments of the invention.

FIG. 10 shows a chart of an EDS measurement in accordance with one ormore embodiments of the invention.

FIGS. 11A-11C show charts of the porosity of gold corral structures inaccordance with one or more embodiments of the invention.

FIGS. 12A-12C show charts of the mass loss of water into steam inaccordance with one or more embodiments of the invention.

FIG. 13A-13B show charts of the energy capture efficiency in accordancewith one or more embodiments of the invention.

FIG. 14 shows a system in accordance with one or more embodiments of theinvention.

FIG. 15 shows a flowchart for a method of creating vapor for generatingelectric power in accordance with one or more embodiments of theinvention.

FIG. 16 shows a single line diagram of an example system for creatingvapor for generating electric power in accordance with one or moreembodiments of the invention.

FIGS. 17A and 17B show examples of a vessel including a complex and afluid in accordance with one or more embodiments of the invention.

FIGS. 18A and 18B show examples of a vessel containing a complex inaccordance with one or more embodiments of the invention.

FIG. 19 shows a single line diagram of an example system for creatingvapor for generating electric power in accordance with one or moreembodiments of the invention.

FIG. 20 shows a system in accordance with one or more embodiments of theinvention.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Specific embodiments of the invention will now be described in detailwith reference to the accompanying figures. Like elements in the variousfigures are denoted by like reference numerals for consistency.

In the following detailed description of embodiments of the invention,numerous specific details are set forth in order to provide a morethorough understanding of the invention. However, it will be apparent toone of ordinary skill in the art that the invention may be practicedwithout these specific details. In other instances, well-known featureshave not been described in detail to avoid unnecessarily complicatingthe description.

In general, embodiments of the invention provide for generating electricpower using an electromagnetic (EM) radiation-absorbing complex. Morespecifically, one or more embodiments of the invention provide forcreating a vapor (e.g., steam) from a fluid (e.g., water) by heating thefluid using one or more complexes (e.g., nanoshells) that have absorbedEM radiation to power or contribute to the power necessary to operate acooling system.

The invention may provide for a complex mixed in a liquid solution, usedto coat a wall of a vessel, integrated with a material of which a vesselis made, and/or otherwise suitably integrated with a vessel used toapply EM radiation to the complex. All the piping and associatedfittings, pumps, valves, gauges, and other equipment described, used, orcontemplated herein, either actually or as one of ordinary skill in theart would conceive, are made of materials resistant to the heat and/orchemicals transported, transformed, pressurized, created, or otherwisehandled within those materials.

In one or more embodiments of the invention, a power generation systemmay be used to power or help supplement the power a cooling system. Thepower generation system may be incorporated into the manufacturing ofthe cooling system or may connected to existing cooling systems. In oneor more of the embodiments, the power generation system may be connectedto an existing cooling system through the power supply connection of thecooling system. In such an embodiment, the supplemental power generationof the invention may be connected in series with the power supply of theestablished cooling system.

In one or more embodiments, the power supply generating section maysupply power to a cooling system, or supplement the power to a coolingsystem, based on specific conditions. For example, the power supplygeneration may be instigated based on outdoor temperature, specific timeof day, power availability, and/or the availability of EM radiation. Inanother example, power supply generating section includes a photocelland the power from the turbine is provided to the cooling unit based ona reading of the photocell.

A source of EM radiation may be any source capable of emitting energy atone or more wavelengths. For example, EM radiation may be any sourcethat emits radiation in the ultraviolet, visible, and infrared regionsof the electromagnetic spectrum. A source of EM radiation may be manmadeor occur naturally. Examples of a source of EM radiation may include,but are not limited to, the sun, waste heat from an industrial process,and a light bulb. One or more concentrators may be used to intensifyand/or concentrate the energy emitted by a source of EM radiation.Examples of a concentrator include, but are not limited to, lens(es), aparabolic trough(s), mirror(s), black paint, or any combination thereof.

In one or more embodiments, the complex may include one or morenanoparticle structures including, but not limited to, nanoshells,coated nanoshells, metal colloids, nanorods, branched or coralstructures, and/or carbon moieties. In one or more embodiments of theinvention, carbon moieties include carbon nanostructures, including butnot limited to carbon nanotubes, carbon film, or C-60 molecules. In oneor more embodiments, the complex may include a mixture of nanoparticlestructures to absorb EM radiation. Specifically, the complex may bedesigned to maximize the absorption of the electromagnetic radiationemitted from the sun. Further, each complex may absorb EM radiation overa specific range of wavelengths.

In one or more embodiments, the complex may include metal nanoshells. Ananoshell is a substantially spherical dielectric core surrounded by athin metallic shell. The plasmon resonance of a nanoshell may bedetermined by the size of the core relative to the thickness of themetallic shell. Nanoshells may be fabricated according to U.S. Pat. No.6,685,986, hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. Therelative size of the dielectric core and metallic shell, as well as theoptical properties of the core, shell, and medium, determines theplasmon resonance of a nanoshell. Accordingly, the overall size of thenanoshell is dependent on the absorption wavelength desired. Metalnanoshells may be designed to absorb or scatter light throughout thevisible and infrared regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. Forexample, a plasmon resonance in the near infrared region of the spectrum(700 nm-900 nm) may have a substantially spherical silica core having adiameter between 90 nm-175 nm and a gold metallic layer between 4 nm-35nm.

A complex may also include other core-shell structures, for example, ametallic core with one or more dielectric and/or metallic layers usingthe same or different metals. For example, a complex may include a goldor silver nanoparticle, spherical or rod-like, coated with a dielectriclayer and further coated with another gold or silver layer. A complexmay also include other core-shell structures, for example hollowmetallic shell nanoparticles and/or multi-layer shells.

In one or more embodiments, a complex may include a nanoshellencapsulated with a dielectric or rare earth element oxide. For example,gold nanoshells may be coated with an additional shell layer made fromsilica, titanium or europium oxide.

In one embodiment of the invention, the complexes may be aggregated orotherwise combined to create aggregates. In such cases, the resultingaggregates may include complexes of the same type or complexes ofdifferent types.

In one embodiment of the invention, complexes of different types may becombined as aggregates, in solution, or embedded on substrate. Bycombining various types of complexes, a broad range of the EM spectrummay be absorbed.

FIG. 1 is a schematic of a nanoshell coated with an additional rareearth element oxide in accordance with one or more embodiments of theinvention. Typically, a gold nanoshell has a silica core 102 surroundedby a thin gold layer 104. As stated previously, the size of the goldlayer is relative to the size of the core determines and the plasmonresonance of the particle. According to one or more embodiments of theinvention, a nanoshell may then be coated with a dielectric or rareearth layer 106. The additional layer 106 may serve to preserve theresultant plasmon resonance and protect the particle from anytemperature effects, for example, melting of the gold layer 104.

FIG. 2 is a flow chart of a method of manufacturing the coatednanoshells in accordance with one or more embodiments of the invention.In ST 200, nanoshells are manufactured according to known techniques. Inthe example of europium oxide, in ST 202, 20 mL of a nanoshell solutionmay be mixed with 10 mL of 2.5M (NH₂)₂CO and 20 mL of 0.1M ofEu(NO₃)₃xH₂O solutions in a glass container. In ST 204, the mixture maybe heated to boiling for 3-5 minutes under vigorous stirring. The timethe mixture is heated may determine the thickness of the additionallayer, and may also determine the number of nanoparticle aggregates insolution. The formation of nanostructure aggregates is known to createadditional plasmon resonances at wavelengths higher than the individualnanostructure that may contribute to the energy absorbed by thenanostructure for heat generation. In ST 206, the reaction may then bestopped by immersing the glass container in an ice bath. In ST 208, thesolution may then be cleaned by centrifugation, and then redispersedinto the desired solvent. The additional layer may contribute to thesolubility of the nanoparticles in different solvents. Solvents that maybe used in one or more embodiments of the invention include, but are notlimited to, water, ammonia, ethylene glycol, and glycerin.

In addition to europium, other examples of element oxides that may beused in the above recipe include, but are not limited to, erbium,samarium, praseodymium, and dysprosium. The additional layer is notlimited to rare earth oxides. Any coating of the particle that mayresult in a higher melting point, better solubility in a particularsolvent, better deposition onto a particular substrate, and/or controlover the number of aggregates or plasmon resonance of the particle maybe used. Examples of the other coatings that may be used in, but are notlimited to silica, titanium dioxide, polymer-based coatings, additionallayers formed by metals or metal alloys, and/or combinations ofmaterials.

FIG. 3 is an absorbance spectrum of three nanoparticle structures thatmay be included in a complex in accordance with one or more embodimentsdisclosed herein. In FIG. 3, a gold nanoshell spectrum 308 may beengineered by selecting the core and shell dimensions to obtain aplasmon resonance peak at ˜800 nm. FIG. 3 also includes aEu₂O₃-encapsulated gold nanoshell spectrum 310, where theEu₂O₃-encapsulated gold nanoshell is manufactured using the samenanoshells from the nanoshell spectrum 308. As may be seen in FIG. 3,there may be some particle aggregation in the addition of the europiumoxide layer. However, the degree of particle aggregation may becontrolled by varying the reaction time described above. FIG. 3 alsoincludes a ˜100 nm diameter spherical gold colloid spectrum 312 that maybe used to absorb electromagnetic radiation in a different region of theelectromagnetic spectrum. In the specific examples of FIG. 3, theEu₂O₃-encapsulated gold nanoshells may be mixed with the gold colloidsto construct a complex that absorbs any EM radiation from 500 nm togreater than 1200 nm. The concentrations of the different nanoparticlestructures may be manipulated to achieve the desired absorption of thecomplex.

X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and/or energy dispersive x-rayspectroscopy (EDS) measurements may be used to investigate the chemicalcomposition and purity of the nanoparticle structures in the complex.For example, FIG. 4A shows an XPS spectrum in accordance with one ormore embodiments of the invention. XPS measurements were acquired with aPHI Quantera X-ray photoelectron spectrometer. FIG. 4A shows the XPSspectra in different spectral regions corresponding to the elements ofthe nanoshell encapsulated with europium oxide. FIG. 4A shows the XPSspectra display the binding energies for Eu (3d 5/2) at 1130 eV 414, Eu(2d 3/2) at 1160 eV 416, Au (4f 7/2) at 83.6 eV 418, and Au (4f 5/2) at87.3 eV 420 of nanoshells encapsulated with europium oxide. Forcomparison, FIG. 4B shows an XPS spectrum of europium oxide colloidsthat may be manufactured according to methods known in the art. FIG. 4Bshows the XPS spectra display the binding energies for Eu (3d 5/2) at1130 eV 422 and Eu (2d 3/2) at 1160 eV 424 of europium oxide colloids.

Similar to above, in one or more embodiments of the invention, thecomplex may include solid metallic nanoparticles encapsulated with anadditional layer as described above. For example, using the methodsdescribed above, solid metallic nanoparticles may be encapsulated usingsilica, titanium, europium, erbium, samarium, praseodymium, anddysprosium. Examples of solid metallic nanoparticles include, but arenot limited to, spherical gold, silver, copper, or nickel nanoparticlesor solid metallic nanorods. The specific metal may be chosen based onthe plasmon resonance, or absorption, of the nanoparticle whenencapsulated. The encapsulating elements may be chosen based on chemicalcompatibility, the encapsulating elements ability to increase themelting point of the encapsulated nanoparticle structure, and thecollective plasmon resonance, or absorption, of a solution of theencapsulated nanostructure, or the plasmon resonance of the collectionof encapsulated nanostructures when deposited on a substrate.

In one or more embodiments, the complex may also include coppercolloids. Copper colloids may be synthesized using a solution-phasechemical reduction method. For example, 50 mL of 0.4 M aqueous solutionof L-ascorbic acid, 0.8M of Polyvinyl pyridine (PVP), and 0.01M ofcopper (II) nitride may be mixed and heated to 70 degree Celsius untilthe solution color changes from a blue-green color to a red color. Thecolor change indicates the formation of copper nanoparticles. FIG. 5 isan experimental and theoretical spectrum in accordance with one or moreembodiments of the invention. FIG. 5 includes an experimental absorptionspectrum 526 of copper colloids in accordance with one or moreembodiments of the invention. Therefore, copper colloids may be used toabsorb electromagnetic radiation in the 550 nm to 900 nm range.

FIG. 5 also includes a theoretical absorption spectrum 528 calculatedusing Mie scattering theory. In one or more embodiments, Mie scatteringtheory may be used to theoretically determine the absorbance of one ormore nanoparticle structures to calculate and predict the overallabsorbance of the complex. Thus, the complex may be designed to maximizethe absorbance of solar electromagnetic radiation.

Referring to FIG. 6, an EDS spectrum of copper colloids in accordancewith one or more embodiments of the invention is shown. The EDS spectrumof the copper colloids confirms the existence of copper atoms by theappearance peaks 630. During the EDS measurements, the particles aredeposited on a silicon substrate, as evidenced by the presence of thesilicon peak 632.

In one or more embodiments, the complex may include copper oxidenanoparticles. Copper oxide nanostructures may be synthesized by 20 mLaqueous solution of 62.5 mM Cu(NO₃)₂ being directly mixed with 12 mLNH₄OH under stirring. The mixture may be stirred vigorously atapproximately 80° C. for 3 hours, then the temperature is reduced to 40°C. and the solution is stirred overnight. The solution color turns fromblue to black color indicating the formation of the copper oxidenanostructure. The copper oxide nanostructures may then be washed andre-suspended in water via centrifugation. FIG. 7 shows the absorption ofcopper oxide nanoparticles in accordance with one or more embodiments ofthe invention. The absorption of the copper oxide nanoparticles 734 maybe used to absorb electromagnetic radiation in the region from ˜900 nmto beyond 1200 nm.

In one or more embodiments of the invention, the complex may includebranched nanostructures. One of ordinary skill in the art willappreciate that embodiments of the invention are not limited to strictgold branched structures. For example, silver, nickel, copper, orplatinum branched structures may also be used. FIG. 8 is a flow chart ofthe method of manufacturing gold branched structures in accordance withone or more embodiments of the invention. In ST 800, an aqueous solutionof 1% HAuCl₄ may be aged for two-three weeks. In ST 802, a polyvinylpyridine (PVP) solution may be prepared by dissolving 0.25 g inapproximately 20 mL ethanol solution and rescaled with water to a finalvolume of 50 mL. In ST 804, 50 mL of the 1% HAuCl₄ and 50 mL of the PVPsolution may be directly mixed with 50 mL aqueous solution of 0.4ML-ascorbic acid under stirring. The solution color may turn immediatelyin dark blue-black color which indicates the formation of a goldnanoflower or nano-coral. Then, in ST 806, the Au nanostructures maythen be washed and resuspended in water via centrifugation. In otherwords, the gold branched nanostructures may be synthesized throughL-ascorbic acid reduction of aqueous chloroaurate ions at roomtemperature with addition of PVP as the capping agent. The cappingpolymer PVP may stabilize the gold branched nanostructures by preventingthem from aggregating. In addition, the gold branched nanostructures mayform a porous polymer-type matrix.

FIG. 9 shows the absorption of a solution of gold branchednanostructures in accordance with one or more embodiments of theinvention. As can be seen in FIG. 9, the absorption spectrum 936 of thegold branched nanostructures is almost flat for a large spectral range,which may lead to considerably high photon absorption. The breadth ofthe spectrum 936 of the gold branched nanostructures may be due to thestructural diversity of the gold branched nanostructures or, in otherworks, the collective effects of which may come as an average ofindividual branches of the gold branched/corals nanostructure.

FIG. 10 shows the EDS measurements of the gold branched nanostructuresin accordance with one or more embodiments of the invention. The EDSmeasurements may be performed to investigate the chemical compositionand purity of the gold branched nanostructures. In addition, the peaks1038 in the EDS measurements of gold branched nanostructures confirm thepresence of Au atoms in the gold branched nanostructures.

FIG. 11 shows a Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) surface area and pore sizedistribution analysis of branches in accordance with one or moreembodiments of the invention. The BET surface area and pore size may beperformed to characterize the branched nanostructures. FIG. 11A presentsthe nitrogen adsorption-desorption isotherms of a gold corral samplecalcinated at 150° C. for 8 hours. The isotherms may exhibit a type IVisotherm with a N₂ hysteresis loops in desorption branch as shown. Asshown in FIG. 11A, the isotherms may be relatively flat in thelow-pressure region (P/P₀<0.7). Also, the adsorption and desorptionisotherms may be completely superposed, a fact which may demonstratethat the adsorption of the samples mostly likely occurs in the pores. Atthe relative high pressure region, the isotherms may form a loop due tothe capillarity agglomeration phenomena. FIG. 11B presents a bimodalpore size distribution, showing the first peak 1140 at the pore diameterof 2.9 nm and the second peak 1142 at 6.5 nm. FIG. 11C shows the BETplots of gold branched nanostructures in accordance with one or moreembodiments of the invention. A value of 10.84 m²/g was calculated forthe specific surface area of branches in this example by using amultipoint BET-equation.

In one or more embodiments of the invention, the gold branchednanostructures dispersed in water may increase the nucleation sites forboiling, absorb electromagnetic energy, decrease the bubble lifetime dueto high surface temperature and high porosity, and increase theinterfacial turbulence by the water gradient temperature and theBrownian motion of the particles. The efficiency of a gold branchedcomplex solution may be high because it may allow the entire fluid to beinvolved in the boiling process.

As demonstrated in the above figures and text, in accordance with one ormore embodiments of the invention, the complex may include a number ofdifferent specific nanostructures chosen to maximize the absorption ofthe complex in a desired region of the electromagnetic spectrum. Inaddition, the complex may be suspended in different solvents, forexample water or ethylene glycol. Also, the complex may be depositedonto a surface according to known techniques. For example, a molecularor polymer linker may be used to fix the complex to a surface, whileallowing a solvent to be heated when exposed to the complex. The complexmay also be embedded in a matrix or porous material. For example, thecomplex may be embedded in a polymer or porous matrix material formed tobe inserted into a particular embodiment as described below. Forexample, the complex could be formed into a removable cartridge. Asanother example, a porous medium (e.g., fiberglass) may be embedded withthe complex and placed in the interior of a vessel containing a fluid tobe heated. The complex may also be formed into shapes in one or moreembodiments described below in order to maximize the surface of thecomplex and, thus, maximize the absorption of EM radiation. In addition,the complex may be embedded in a packed column or coated onto rodsinserted into one or more embodiments described below.

FIGS. 12A-12C show charts of the mass loss and temperature increase ofdifferent nanostructures that may be used in a complex in accordancewith one or more embodiments of the invention. The results shown inFIGS. 12A-12C were performed to monitor the mass loss of an aqueousnanostructure solution for 10 minutes under sunlight (FIG. 12B) versusnon-pulsed diode laser illumination at 808 nm (FIG. 12A). In FIG. 12A,the mass loss versus time of the laser illumination at 808 nm is shownfor Eu₂O₃-coated nanoshells 1244, non-coated gold nanoshells 1246, andgold nanoparticles with a diameter of ˜100 nm 1248. Under laserexposure, as may be expected from the absorbance shown in FIG. 3, at 808nm illumination, the coated and non-coated nanoshells exhibit a massloss due to the absorbance of the incident electromagnetic radiation at808 nm. In addition, as the absorbance is lower at 808 nm, the 100 nmdiameter gold colloid exhibits little mass loss at 808 nm illumination.In FIG. 12A, the Au nanoparticles demonstrated a lower loss rate thatwas nearly the same as water because the laser wavelength was detunedfrom plasmon resonance frequency. The greatest mass loss was obtained byadding a layer around the gold nanoshells, where the particle absorptionspectrum was approximately the same as the solar spectrum (see FIG. 3.)

In FIG. 12B, the mass loss as a function of time under exposure to thesun in accordance with one or more embodiments of the invention isshown. In FIG. 12B, the mass loss under sun exposure with an averagepower of 20 W is shown for Eu₂O₃-coated nanoshells 1250, non-coated goldnanoshells 1252, gold nanoparticles with a diameter of ˜100 nm 1254, anda water control 1256. As in the previous example, the greatest mass lossmay be obtained by adding a rare earth or dielectric layer around ananoshell.

The resulting mass loss curves in FIGS. 12A and 12B show significantwater evaporation rates for Eu₂O₃-coated gold nanoshells. The mass lossmay be slightly greater under solar radiation because the particles wereable to absorb light from a broader range of wavelengths. In addition,the collective effect of aggregates broadens the absorption spectrum ofthe oxide-coated nanoparticles, which may help to further amplify theheating effect and create local areas of high temperature, or local hotspots. Aggregates may also allow a significant increase in boiling ratesdue to collective self organizing forces. The oxide layer may furtherenhance steam generation by increasing the surface area of thenanoparticle, thus providing more boiling nucleation sites per particle,while conserving the light-absorbing properties of the nanostructure.

FIG. 12C shows the temperature increase versus time under the 808 nmlaser exposure in accordance with one or more embodiments of theinvention. In FIG. 12C, the temperature increase under the 808 nm laserexposure is shown for Eu₂O₃-coated nanoshells 1258, non-coated goldnanoshells 1260, gold nanoparticles with a diameter of ˜100 nm 1262, anda water control 1264. As may be expected, the temperature of thesolutions of the different nanostructures that may be included in thecomplex increases due to the absorption of the incident electromagneticradiation of the specific nanostructure and the conversion of theabsorbed electromagnetic radiation in to heat.

FIG. 13A is a chart of the solar trapping efficiency in accordance withone or more embodiments of the invention. To quantify the energytrapping efficiency of the complex, steam is generated in a flask andthrottled through a symmetric convergent-divergent nozzle. The steam isthen cooled and collected into an ice bath maintained at 0° C. Thenozzle serves to isolate the high pressure in the boiler from the lowpressure in the ice bath and may stabilize the steam flow. Accordingly,the steam is allowed to maintain a steady dynamic state for dataacquisition purposes. In FIG. 13A, the solar energy capture efficiency(11) of water (i) and Eu2O3-coated nanoshells (ii) and gold branched(ii) nanostructures is shown. The resulting thermal efficiency of steamformation may be estimated at 80% for the coated nanoshell complex and95% for a gold branched complex. By comparison, water has approximately10% efficiency under the same conditions.

In one or more embodiments of the invention, the concentration of thecomplex may be modified to maximize the efficiency of the system. Forexample, in the case where the complex is in solution, the concentrationof the different nanostructures that make up the complex for absorbingEM radiation may be modified to optimize the absorption and, thus,optimize the overall efficiency of the system. In the case where thecomplex is deposited on a surface, the surface coverage may be modifiedaccordingly.

In FIG. 13B, the steam generation efficiency versus gold nanoshellconcentration for solar and electrical heating in accordance with one ormore embodiments of the invention is shown. The results show anenhancement in efficiency for both electrical 1366 and solar 1368heating sources, confirming that the bubble nucleation rate increaseswith the concentration of complex. At high concentrations, the complexis likely to form small aggregates with small inter-structure gaps.These gaps may create “hot spots”, where the intensity of the electricfield may be greatly enhanced, causing an increase in temperature of thesurrounding water. The absorption enhancement under electrical energy1366 is not as dramatic as that under solar power 1368 because the solarspectrum includes energetic photons in the NIR, visible and UV that arenot present in the electric heater spectrum. At the higherconcentrations, the steam generation efficiency begins to stabilize,indicating a saturation behavior. This may result from a shieldingeffect by the particles at the outermost regions of the flask, which mayserve as a virtual blackbody around the particles in the bulk solution.

FIG. 14 shows a system 1400 for creating vapor for electric generationin accordance with one or more embodiments of the invention. The powergeneration system 1400 includes a heat generation system 1410, a fluidheating system 1420, a generating system 1430, a condenser 1440, a fluidsupply system 1450, and a control system 1460. The heat generationsystem 1410 includes an EM radiation source 1414, and, optionally, an EMradiation concentrator 1412. The fluid heating system 1420 includes avessel with a complex 1422, a temperature gauge 1424, and, optionally, asuperheater 1426. The generating system 1430 includes a vapor-driventurbine 1432 and a generator 1434. The fluid supply system 1450 includesa fluid source 1452, a pump 1454, and, optionally, a fluid treatmentfacility 1456. The control system 1460 includes a controller 1462 and atransformer 1464. Each of these components is described with respectFIG. 14 below. One of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate thatembodiments of the invention are not limited to the configuration shownin FIG. 14.

Each component shown in FIG. 14, as well as any other component impliedand/or described but not shown in FIG. 14, may be configured to receivematerial from one component (i.e., an upstream component) of the powergeneration system 1400 and send material (either the same as thematerial received or material that has been altered in some way (e.g.,vapor to fluid)) to another component (i.e., a downstream component) ofthe power generation system 1400. In all cases, the material receivedfrom the upstream component may be delivered through a series of pipes,pumps, valves, and/or other devices to control factors associated withthe material received such as the flow rate, temperature, and pressureof the material received as it enters the component. Further, the fluidand/or vapor may be delivered to the downstream component using adifferent series of pipes, pumps, valves, and/or other devices tocontrol factors associated with the material sent such as the flow rate,temperature, and pressure of the material sent as it leaves thecomponent.

In one or more embodiments of the invention, the complex based systemmay be incorporated into the air cooling device. For example, the heatgenerating system, fluid heating system, and/or condenser systemdescribed above may be considered part of the air cooling device.Typically, an air cooling system includes a condenser, compressor andevaporator. One of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate thesimilarity between the functionality of a compressor and the heatgeneration system and fluid heating system described above. In addition,the fluid supply system and condenser of the invention are typicalcomponents used in an air cooling device.

In one or more embodiments of the invention, the heat generation system1410 of the power generation system 1400 is configured to provide EMradiation. In one or more embodiments of the invention, the EM radiationsource 1414 is any source capable of emitting EM radiation having one ora range of wavelengths. The EM radiation source 1414 may be a stream offlue gas derived from a combustion process using a fossil fuel,including but not limited to coal, fuel oil, natural gas, gasoline, andpropane. In one or more embodiments of the invention, the stream of fluegas is created during the production of heat and/or electric power usinga boiler to heat water using one or more fossil fuels. The stream offlue gas may also be created during some other industrial process,including but not limited to chemical production, petroleum refining,and steel manufacturing. The stream of flue gas may be conditionedbefore being received by the heat generation system 1410. For example, achemical may be added to the stream of flue gas, or the temperature ofthe stream of flue gas may be regulated in some way. Conditioning thestream of flue gas may be performed using a separate system designed forsuch a purpose.

In one or more embodiments of the invention, the EM radiation source1414 is some other natural and/or manmade source, including but notlimited to the sun, a light bulb, and captured waste heat. The EMradiation source may be external to the heat generation system 1410. TheEM radiation source 1414 may also be a suitable combination of sourcesof EM radiation, whether emitting energy using the same wavelengths ordifferent wavelengths.

Optionally, in one or more embodiments of the invention, the EMradiation concentrator 1412 is a device used to intensify the energyemitted by the EM radiation source 1414. Examples of an EM radiationconcentrator 1412 include, but are not limited to, a lens, a parabolictrough, black paint, or any suitable combination thereof. The EMradiation concentrator 1412 may be used to increase the rate at whichthe EM radiation is absorbed by the complex.

In one or more embodiments of the invention, the fluid heating system1420 of the power generation system 1400 is configured to transform(i.e., convert) the fluid into vapor. Specifically, the vessel 1422 ofthe fluid heating system 1420 may include the complex used to heat thefluid. The vessel 1422 may include a liquid solution (or some othermaterial, liquid or otherwise) that includes the complex, be coated onone or more inside surfaces with a coating of the complex, be coated onone or more outside surfaces with a coating of the complex, beconstructed of a material that includes the complex, or any combinationthereof. The vessel 1422 may also be adapted to facilitate one or moreEM radiation concentrators 1412, as described above. The vessel 1422 maybe of any size, shape, color, degree of translucence/transparency, orany other characteristic suitable for the amount and type of vaporrequired to generate the electricity. For example, the vessel 1422 maybe a large, cylindrical tank holding a quantity of solution thatincludes the complex and with a number of lenses (acting as EM radiationconcentrators) along the lid and upper walls. In such a case, thesolution may include the fluid being used to be transformed into vapor.Further, in such a case, the fluid includes properties such that thecomplex remains in the solution when a filtering system (describedbelow) is used. Alternatively, the vessel 1422 may be a translucent pipewith the interior surfaces coated with a substrate of the complex, wherethe pipe is positioned at the focal point of a parabolic trough (actingas an EM radiation concentrator) made of reflective metal.

In one or more embodiments of the invention, the vessel 1422 includesone or more temperature gauges 1424 to measure a temperature atdifferent points inside the vessel 1422. For example, a temperaturegauge 1424 may be placed at the point in the vessel 1422 where the vaporexits the vessel 1422. Such temperature gauge 1424 may be operativelyconnected to a control system (not shown) used to control the amountand/or quality of vapor produced for generating electric power. In oneor more embodiments of the invention, the vessel 1422 may be pressurizedwhere the pressure is read and/or controlled using a pressure gauge (notshown). Those skilled in the art will appreciate one or more controlsystems used to generate steam for generating electricity may involve anumber of devices, including but not limited to temperature gauges,pressure gauges, pumps, fans, and valves, controlled (manually and/orautomatically) according to a number of protocols and operatingprocedures.

In one or more embodiments of the invention, the vessel 1422 may alsoinclude a filtering system located inside the vessel 1422 to captureimpurities in the fluid that are not converted to vapor with the fluid.The filtering system may vary, depending on a number of factors,including but not limited to the configuration of the vessel 1422, orthe purity requirements of the vapor. The filtering system may beintegrated with the control system. For example, the filtering systemmay operate within a temperature range measured by one or moretemperature gauges 1424.

Optionally, in one or more embodiments of the invention, the fluidheating system 1420 includes a superheater 1426. The superheater 1426may be used to increase the temperature of the vapor to a level requiredby the vapor-driven turbine 1432. The superheater 1426 and similardevices used to process the vapor so that the characteristics of thevapor are within the operating requirements of the vapor-driven turbine1432 are known in the art and will not be described further herein.

In one or more embodiments of the invention, the generating system 1430of the power generation system 1400 is configured to use the vapor togenerate electricity. The vapor-driven turbine 1432 may include one ormore chambers (e.g., sets of turbine blades) operating at one or moredifferent pressures. The vapor-driven turbine 1432 may also includedifferent sizes of turbine blades. In one or more embodiments of theinvention, the vapor-driven turbine 1432 is sized in accordance with thespecifications of the generator 1434. Those skilled in the art willappreciate that the vapor-driven turbine 1432 of the generating system1430 may be any type of turbine, now known or to be discovered, adaptedto receive vapor, which turns one or more blades of the turbine.

In one or more embodiments of the invention, the generator 1434 of thegenerating system 1430 rotates in response to the turning of the turbineblades of the vapor-driven turbine 1432 to create electricity.Specifically, the generator 1434 may include a rotor that rotates insidea stator, inducing electromagnetic current in the stator. The rotor ofthe generator 1434 may be connected to the vapor-driven turbine 1432 bya shaft. The generator 1434 may be capable of generating any amount ofpower, from a few kilowatts (or less) to several hundred megawatts (ormore). Those skilled in the art will appreciate that the generator 1434may be any type of generator, now known or to be discovered, adapted tocreate electromagnetic current.

In one or more embodiments of the invention, the condenser 1440 of thepower generation system 1400 is configured to condense the vaporreceived from the generating system 1430 to fluid. The fluid condensedby the condenser 1440 may be the same as the fluid received by the fluidheating system 1420 described above. The condenser 1440 may use air,water, or any other suitable material/medium to cool the vapor. Thecondenser 1440 may also operate under a particular pressure, such asunder a vacuum. Those skilled in the art will appreciate that thecondenser 1440 may be any type of condenser, now known or to bediscovered, adapted to liquefy a vapor.

In one or more embodiments of the invention, the fluid supply system1450 of the power generation system 1400 is configured to supply fluidto the fluid heating system 1420. The fluid source 1452 of the fluidsupply system 1450 may be any source of fluid. For example, the fluidsource 1452 may include, but is not limited to, the condenser 1440, apond, a lake, a chemical mixing tank, recycled fluid from a closed-loopsystem (described below), some other suitable source, or any combinationthereof. The flow of fluid to and/or from the fluid source 1452 may becontrolled by one or more pumps 1454, which may operate manually orautomatically (as with a control system, described above). Each pump1454 may operate using a variable speed motor or a fixed speed motor.

Optionally, in one or more embodiments of the invention, the fluidtreatment facility 1456 is used to treat the fluid received by the fluidsupply system 1450 so that the fluid includes characteristics (e.g., pH,mixture of elements and/or compounds, temperature) required by the fluidheating system 1420. The fluid treatment facility 1456 may include anyequipment necessary to treat the fluid, including but not limited to amixing vat, a centrifuge, a chemical separator, and atemperature-controlled holding tank.

In one or more embodiments of the invention, the control system 1460 maycontrol the operation of the cooling power generation system 1400. Thecontroller 1462 may be designed to supply power to a cooling systembased on specific conditions. For example, the controller 1462 maydetect the amount of power needed to run a cooling system is above a setthreshold and supply power accordingly. In one or more embodiments, thecontroller may detect that the power generation system 1400 is capableof generating some or all of the power need to operate the coolingsystem. In one or more embodiments, the controller may monitor the EMradiation source 1414, and determine the availability of power that canbe generated by the power generation system 1400, and supply some or allof the power accordingly.

In one or more embodiments of the invention, the controller may beprogrammed to supply power from the power generation system 1400 basedon specific times of the day. For example, the power generation system1400 may be programmed to supply power to the cooling system during thepeak hours of the use of electricity.

In one or more embodiments of the invention, the control system 1460 mayinclude a transformer 1464. The transformer 1464 may be used totransform the power generated into the specific form of power needed bythe cooling system. For example, the power generated by the powergeneration system 1400 may be transformed into a typical line voltage.As another example, the transformer 1464 may transform the power into aspecific voltage needed for the specific cooling system used.

FIG. 15 shows a flowchart for a method of creating vapor for generatingelectricity for a cooling system in accordance with one or moreembodiments of the invention. While the various steps in this flowchartare presented and described sequentially, one of ordinary skill willappreciate that some or all of the steps may be executed in differentorders, may be combined or omitted, and some or all of the steps may beexecuted in parallel. Further, in one or more of the embodiments of theinvention, one or more of the steps described below may be omitted,repeated, and/or performed in a different order. In addition, a personof ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that additional steps,omitted in FIG. 15, may be included in performing this method.Accordingly, the specific arrangement of steps shown in FIG. 15 shouldnot be construed as limiting the scope of the invention.

Referring to FIG. 15, in Step 1502, a fluid is received in a vesselcontaining a complex. The fluid may be any liquid, such as water. Thefluid may have impurities (e.g., other elements and/or compounds) thatare not needed or wanted when the fluid is in vapor form. The vessel maybe any container capable of holding a volume of the fluid. For example,the vessel may be a pipe, a chamber, or some other suitable container.In one or more embodiments of the invention, the vessel is adapted tomaintain its characteristics (e.g., form, properties) under hightemperatures for extended periods of time. The complex may be part of asolution inside the vessel, a coating on the outside of the vessel, acoating on the inside of the vessel, integrated as part of the materialof which the vessel is made, integrated with the vessel in some otherway, or any suitable combination thereof. The fluid may be received inthe vessel using a pump, a valve, a regulator, some other device tocontrol the flow of the fluid, or any suitable combination thereof.

In Step 1504, the EM radiation sent by an EM radiation source to thevessel is concentrated. In one or more embodiments of the invention, theEM radiation is concentrated using an EM radiation concentrator, asdescribed above with respect to FIG. 14. For example, the EM radiationmay be concentrated using a lens or a parabolic trough. In one or moreembodiments of the invention, the EM radiation is concentrated merely byexposing the vessel to the EM radiation.

In Step 1506, the EM radiation is applied to the complex. In one or moreembodiments of the invention, the complex absorbs the EM radiation togenerate heat. The EM radiation may be applied to all or a portion ofthe complex contained in the vessel. The EM radiation may also beapplied to an intermediary, which in turn applies the EM radiation(either directly or indirectly, as through convection) to the complex. Acontrol system using, for example, one or more temperature gauges, mayregulate the amount of EM radiation applied to the complex, thuscontrolling the amount of heat generated by the complex at a given pointin time. Power required for any component in the control system may besupplied by any of a number of external sources (e.g., a battery, aphotovoltaic solar array, alternating current power, direct currentpower) and/or from electric power generated by the generator, as in Step1510 below.

In Step 1508, the fluid is transformed into a vapor. In one or moreembodiments of the invention, the heat generated by the complex is usedto heat the fluid to any temperature at or beyond the boiling point ofthe fluid. In Step 1510, the vapor is sent from the vessel to a turbinecoupled to a generator by a shaft. In one or more embodiments of theinvention, the vapor flows through the turbine, causing the turbineblades to turn. As the turbine blades, affixed to the shaft, turn, thegenerator may also turn. As the generator turns, electric power isproduced. The vapor may be sent from the vessel to the turbine usingpart of a control system, including but not limited to a fan (notshown). The power generated may then be used to power or supplement thepower to an appliance, for example, a cooling system.

Optionally, after completing Step 1510, the process proceeds to Step1512, where the vapor is condensed to a fluid. In one or moreembodiments of the invention, a condenser is used to condense the vaporto a fluid. The fluid may be substantially the same fluid as the fluiddescribed above with regard to Step 1502. After completing Step 1512,the process proceeds to Step 1502. Optional Step 1512 is used as part ofa recirculation or closed-loop system. Using Step 1512 may increase theenergy efficiency for creating steam to generate electric power.

EXAMPLE 1 Closed-Loop System

Consider the following example, shown in FIG. 16, which describes aprocess that produces steam used to generate electric power for thecooling system in accordance with one or more embodiments describedabove. Specifically, FIG. 16 illustrates a closed-loop system to producethe steam required to generate electric power. In one or moreembodiments, the fluid supply 1602 is a lake or retention pond, wherethe fluid is water. A pump 1604 is used to move the water from the fluidsupply 1602 to the vessel 1630. In this example, the vessel 1630 may bea large tank, a boiler, or some similar container capable ofwithstanding the temperature, pressure, weight, and other parametersnecessary to generate steam.

In this example, the vessel 1630 includes a concentrator 1610 in theform of a large lens integrated as part of the top portion of the vessel1630. The vessel 1630 also includes a temperature gauge 1606 and apressure gauge 1608, which may be integrated with a control system (notshown). The water delivered to the vessel 1630 pools at the bottomportion 1632 of the vessel. In this example, the complex is mixed withthe water at the bottom portion 1632 of the vessel. An EM radiationsource (not shown), such as the sun, provides EM radiation to theconcentrator 1610, where the EM radiation is concentrated beforeentering the vessel 1630. The concentrated EM radiation then contactsthe water/complex solution at the bottom portion 1632 of the vessel. Asthe complex absorbs the EM radiation, heat is generated and transferredto the water in the solution. As the water is heated to a temperature ator above the boiling point of water, the water is transformed into steamand rises toward the top of the vessel 1630.

The steam may leave the vessel 1630 through a pipe 1612. Theaforementioned control system may utilize a control valve 1614, a fan,and/or some other device to control the flow of steam from the vessel1630 to the turbine 1620. Optionally, if the steam is not heated to asufficiently high temperature, then a superheater 1616 may be used toincrease the temperature of the steam to a point that is required tosafely operate the turbine 1620. Those skilled in the art willappreciate that the superheater 1616 may be any type of superheater, nowknown or to be discovered, adapted to increase the temperature of steam.

After the steam enters the turbine 1620, consequently spinning thegenerator 1622 and creating electric power, the steam travels through apipe 1624 to a condenser 1626. In the condenser 1626, the steam iscondensed from steam to water, where it is returned to the fluid supply1620 to repeat the process. The water may be drawn from the condenser1626 to the fluid supply 1620 using a pump 1604.

As discussed above, the vessel 1630 may take any of a number of forms.Further examples of various vessels are shown in FIGS. 17A through 18B.FIG. 17A, a vessel 1704 in the form of a pipe is shown, along with aportion of a control system. Specifically, FIG. 17A shows the fluid 1702is sent through the tubular vessel 1704 using a pump 1712. The flow ofthe fluid 1702 through the vessel 1704 may also be regulated by, forexample, a valve 1708. As the fluid reaches the front end of the vessel1704, a temperature gauge 1714 reads the temperature of the fluid atthat point. The vessel in this example is partially surrounded by aparabolic trough 1706, which is made of a reflective material used todirect the EM radiation sent by an EM radiation source (not shown) tothe tubular vessel 1704.

In this example, the vessel 1704 may be a pipe coated with a complex.Specifically, as shown in FIG. 17B, the complex may be coated on theoutside of the pipe 1722, and the fluid 1720, which flows inside thevessel, receives the heat generated by the complex at the inner wall ofthe pipe 1724. Further examples of how the complex may be applied to thevessel are shown in FIGS. 18A and 18B. In FIG. 18A, the complex 1804 isapplied to the inside surface 1802 of the vessel. In this case, thecomplex 1804 is not applied evenly, so that a greater amount of surfacearea of the complex 1804 comes in direct contact with the fluid as itflows through the vessel. The greater amount of surface area allows fora greater transfer of heat from the complex 1804 to the fluid.Alternatively, in FIG. 18B, the complex 1810 is applied to the outersurface 1812 of the vessel as an even coating. Those skilled in the artwill appreciate that integrating the complex with the vessel may occurin any of a number of other ways.

Returning to FIG. 17A, as the fluid 1702 travels through the vessel1704, the fluid 1702 changes to a vapor 1710. As the vapor 1710 reachesthe end of the vessel, a second temperature gauge 1716 may be used tomeasure the temperature of the steam at that point in time. A controlsystem may regulate the speed of the motor controlling the pump 1712based on, for example, the length of the vessel 1704, the reading of thefirst and second temperature gauges 1714, 1716, and a sensor (not shown)to measure the intensity of the EM radiation.

EXAMPLE 2 Waste Heat Recapture System

Consider the following example, shown in FIG. 19, which describes aprocess that produces steam used to generate electric power inaccordance with one or more embodiments described above. Specifically,FIG. 19 illustrates a closed-loop system that utilizes recaptured wasteheat to produce the steam required to generate electric power. In one ormore embodiments, the fluid source 1908 is a lake or retention pond,where the fluid is water. A pump 1910 is used to send the water from thefluid source 1908 to one end of a heat exchanger 1906.

The heat exchanger 1906 may have two separate chambers that are adjacentto each other and allow the transfer of energy (e.g., heat) from acompound (e.g., gas, liquid) flowing through one of the chambers to acompound flowing through the other chamber. In the heat exchanger 1906,the two compounds are separated by a solid wall so that the twocompounds do not mix. For efficiency, the heat exchanger 1906 may bedesigned to maximize the surface area of the solid wall between the twocompounds, while minimizing resistance to the flow of the compoundsthrough both chambers of the heat exchanger 1906. The performance of theheat exchanger 1906 may also be affected by the addition of fins orcorrugations on one or both sides of the solid wall separating thechambers. The addition of fins or corrugations on one or both sides ofthe solid wall may increase surface area and/or channel flow of acompound to induce turbulence. A type of heat exchanger 1906 may be aplate heat exchanger, which is composed of multiple, thin,slightly-separated plates that have very large surface areas and flowpassages in both chambers for heat transfer. Those skilled in the artwill appreciate that the heat exchanger 1906 may be any other type ofheat exchanger, now known or to be discovered, adapted to transferenergy from one chamber to another using two compounds.

In this example, the heat exchanger 1906 is transferring heat from aheated waste gas 1902 to the water sent by the fluid source 1908. Asource of the heated waste gas 1902 may include exhaust (e.g., flue gas)from a fossil fuel burned in a boiler or any other industrial processthat creates vapor that is merely released or vented into air. Theconcept of recapturing heated waste gas, whether produced from the sameor a different process, is known to those skilled in the art. Forexample, the heat recover steam generator (HRSG) is commonly used aspart of a combined cycle power generation plant, where the HRSG usesflue gas created by a traditional natural gas-fired turbine to generateadditional electrical power. In this example, the heated waste gas 1902becomes exhaust 1904 after the heated waste gas 1902 exits the heatexchanger 1906, although the exhaust 1904 may be treated and/or used forsome other purpose in the same or some other process.

Because of the heat transferred from the heated waste gas 1902 to thewater in the heat exchanger 1906, the water may be transformed to steam,which traverses through pipe 1914 from the heat exchanger 1906 to theturbine 1918. The rest of the process involving the optional superheater1916, the turbine 1918, the shaft 1920, the generator 1922, the piping1924 of the steam to the condenser 1926, the condenser 1926, and thepiping 1928 from the condenser 1926 to the fluid source 1908 issubstantially similar to the corresponding process involving the same orsubstantially similar components described above with respect to FIG.17.

FIG. 20 is a system in accordance with one or more embodiments of theinvention. The system includes one or more embodiments of the powergenerating embodiments 2000 described above with the addition of thecontrol system 2060. The control system 2060 may include a controller2062 and transformer 2064 as described in FIG. 14. The control system2060 may then be connected to an appliance 2070. The appliance 2070 mayor may not be connected to a line voltage 2080. Alternatively, thecontrol system may be connected in series with the appliance 2070 andline voltage 2080, as described above.

In one or more embodiments, the power generating system 2000 and controlsystem 2060 may be incorporated into the appliance 2070. The powergenerating system 2000 may supply part or all of the power necessary torun the appliance 2070.

One or more embodiments of the invention increase the efficiency of anelectric generating system by creating steam using energy from an EMradiation source rather than using heat from burning a source, such as afossil fuel (e.g., coal, fuel oil, natural gas, wood waste, blackliquor). Consequently, embodiments of the invention may reduce oreliminate emissions (e.g., carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, mercury) thatresult from combusting fossil fuels to generate steam.

Further, embodiments of the invention may reduce the cost of building,operating, and maintaining a cooling system In addition, embodiments ofthe invention may reduce the number of pumps, fans, and othermotor-driven equipment that may be required to operate a cooling system.Fuel handling and fuel processing facilities (e.g., coal handling, coalcrushing/pulverization, wood chipping/pelletizing) may be reduced oreliminated using embodiments of the invention. Associated maintenancecosts of such cooling equipment may also be reduced or eliminated usingembodiments of the invention. Further, embodiments of the invention mayreduce the amount of chemicals and related equipment required forcooling.

While the invention has been described with respect to a limited numberof embodiments, those skilled in the art, having benefit of thisdisclosure, will appreciate that other embodiments can be devised whichdo not depart from the scope of the invention as disclosed herein.Accordingly, the scope of the invention should be limited only by theattached claims.

What is claimed is:
 1. A method for powering a cooling unit, the methodcomprising: applying electromagnetic (EM) radiation to a complex,wherein the complex absorbs the EM radiation to generate heat, whereinthe complex is at least one selected from a group consisting of,nanoshells, nanorods, carbon nanostructures, encapsulated nanoshells,encapsulated nanoparticles, and branched nanostructures; transforming,using the heat generated by the complex, a fluid to vapor; and sendingthe vapor from a vessel to a turbine coupled to a generator by a shaft,wherein the vapor causes the turbine to rotate, which turns the shaftand causes the generator to generate the electric power, wherein theelectric powers supplements the power needed to power the cooling unit,wherein the complex further comprises an encapsulating dielectric layerconfigured to maintain a plasmon resonance of the complex.
 2. The methodof claim 1, further comprising: receiving the fluid in the vesselcomprising the complex; concentrating the EM radiation sent by an EMradiation source to the vessel, wherein the fluid is received in thevessel from a condenser adapted to convert the vapor to the fluid afterthe vapor flows through the turbine.
 3. A system, the system comprising:a pump configured to extract fluid from a fluid source; a turbinecoupled to a generator by a shaft; and a vessel comprising a complex,wherein the vessel is configured to: receive the fluid fed by the pump,concentrate electromagnetic (EM) radiation received from an EM radiationsource, apply the EM radiation to the complex, wherein the complexabsorbs the EM radiation to generate heat, transform, using the heatgenerated by the complex, the fluid to vapor, and send the vapor to theturbine, wherein the vapor rotates the turbine and, using the shaft,causes the generator to generate the electric power, wherein theelectric power supplements the power needed to power the cooling unit,the cooling unit configured to cool a structure, wherein the coolingunit obtains power from the turbine and from one selected from a groupconsisting of a direct current (DC) power source and an alternatingcurrent (AC) power source wherein the complex is at least one selectedfrom a group consisting of nanoshells, nanorods, carbon nano structures,encapsulated nanoshells, encapsulated nanoparticles, and branchednanostructures, wherein the complex further comprises an encapsulatingdielectric layer configured to maintain a plasmon resonance of thecomplex.
 4. The system of claim 3, wherein the fluid is water.
 5. Thesystem of claim 4, wherein the water is untreated.
 6. The system ofclaim 3, wherein the fluid is ethylene glycol.
 7. The system of claim 3,wherein the fluid source is a condenser adapted to convert the vapor tothe fluid after the vapor flows through the turbine.
 8. The system ofclaim 3, wherein the vessel comprises a concentrator, wherein theconcentrator is a lens.
 9. The system of claim 3, wherein the vesselcomprises a concentrator, wherein the concentrator is a parabolic troughand wherein the vessel is a section of pipe coated with the complex. 10.The system of claim 3, wherein the complex is used in a manner selectedfrom at least one of a group consisting of being coated on an interiorof the vessel, being coated on the exterior of the vessel, integratedwith material from which the vessel is constructed, integrated into aporous material which is disposed in the vessel, and floating in thefluid in the vessel.
 11. The system of claim 3, wherein the vesselfurther comprises a control system comprising: a pressure sensorconfigured to measure a pressure inside the vessel; and a valve thatopens to release the vapor from the vessel when the pressure read by thepressure sensor is above a pressure threshold.
 12. The system of claim11, wherein the control system of the vessel further comprises: atemperature sensor configured to measure a temperature inside thevessel, wherein the valve opens to release the vapor from the vesselwhen the temperature read by the temperature sensor is above atemperature threshold.
 13. The system of claim 3, wherein the vessel isoperatively connected to a photocell and wherein power from the turbineis provided to the cooling unit based on a reading of the photocell. 14.The system of claim 1, wherein the vessel has a thermal efficiency ofsteam formation of at least 80%.
 15. The system of claim 3, wherein thevessel has a thermal efficiency of steam formation of at least 80%.